A lot of networking engineers take certification exams to further expand their knowledge base and gain the required skill set to advance in their careers. While there are numerous certification exams, there are very few as globally recognized and valued as Cisco CCNA Routing and Switching certification 200-125 or CCNA Security 210-260. This specific certification adds value and surely helps push forward an IT professionals’ career. All over the world, a huge number of skilled networkers take this certification exam to meet the increased business demands in the always-changing IT industry. If this interests you then you might want to take a CCNA Course in Pune to get the certification.

Here we have discussed some of the things that you can do to pass the Cisco CCNA Routing and Switching certification exam within a week’s time. That’s correct. At first, it may sound almost impossible to prepare for Cisco CCNA Routing and Switching certification exam(s) in just 7 days, but it is very much achievable with hard work, the right strategy, and complete dedication. A lot of professionals have been able to do so, and you can too.

Read More About Cisco Certifications
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_certifications
https://www.passitdump.com/cisco.html

How To Pass Cisco CCENT Certification The First Step
If you too are someone who wants to get ahead of the curve by gaining this certification, then first thing you need to do is to study for CCENT Exam and then go for CCNA.

Get Study Materials from Reliable Sources

If you browse online, you will be able to spot a wide variety of study materials for CCNA Routing and Switching certification exams. However, not all those sources are reliable, authentic and up-to-date. And, any kind of wrong information can prove to be extremely harmful. That is why it is highly recommended to study from materials provided only by reliable sources.

In this case, the most reliable source would be Cisco itself. Get the training materials from Cisco CCENT or CCNA Learning Partners. It comprises of approximately 20 chapters detailing the key topics for this certification exam. Alternatively, you can purchase the Cisco Press books that contain all the must-know topics. Further, if you wish to expand your knowledge base and skill set, then you are free to do so, however, it is imperative to do proper research about a website or book before using it for studying.

Be Aware of the Exam Format

Having proper knowledge about the exam format can prove to be advantageous for the candidate. On the official site of ‘The Cisco Learning Site,” you will be able to get the exact and updated format of the CCNA Routing and Switching certification exam. There will be multiple-choice single answers and multiple answers along with simulations questions. The exam will also comprise of fill in the blanks type of questions and testlet. A testlet is more of a scenario in which you may be provided with 4 questions related to a particular scenario. As per the scenario, you will have to select the possible outcomes.

The simulation questions test your practical knowledge to check if you have the required skills to handle different networking problems in the real-world environment. Lastly, you will get simlet exam questions, these are based on practical knowledge and skills. The simulation questions and simlets are often considered to be the hardest. Thoroughly go through the reading materials and check the official sites for updates of any kind in the exam format.

Know About the Key Topics

To be able to successfully pass the CCENT or CCNA certification exams, one should be well aware of the key topics. Since this is an associate-level certification designed for network engineers and other professionals in the domain of networking, the key topics are related to the fundamentals of networking. However, you should be aware of the different topics to be able to prepare accordingly. Recognize the topics that you are good at and ones that are your weak points. Dedicate proper time to all the significant topics, especially to the ones that you are not confident with.

Pick Which Exam to Take for CCENT, CCNA or CCNP
Lastly, you will have to decide which exam you want to take for earning the CCNA routing and switching certification. Either take the examination 200-125 CCNA or take an exam which is divided into two parts namely CCENT 100-105 ICND1 and 200-105 ICND2. It is essential to clear either of these exams for getting this certification.

CCNA Composite Exam 200-125
https://www.passitdump.com/200-125.html
https://cisco.com/c/en/us/training-events/training-certifications/exams/current-list/200-125-ccna.html

CCNA Security 210-260 Exam
Some of these topics are subnetting, routing protocols, installation, operation and troubleshooting branch network layers, network types, security and media, TCI/IP models, OSI models, IP traffic, handling point-to-point connections and few more. It is crucial to becoming well-versed in all these topics as in the exam you will be tested for both, your theoretical as well as practical knowledge. There is a myriad of reading materials available on these topics that can help you gain the required knowledge.

https://www.passitdump.com/210-260.html

The 3 Exams Are Below:
CCNP Routing & Switching Route 300-101 Exam

https://www.passitdump.com/300-101.html

CCNP Switch 300-115 Exam
https://www.passitdump.com/300-115.html

CCNP Tshoot 300-135 Exam
https://cisco.com/c/en/us/training-events/training-certifications/exams/current-list/tshoot2.html
https://www.passitdump.com/300-135.html

Take Practice Tests
It is incredibly crucial to take practice tests to get an idea of the type of questions that get asked in this certification exam. Practice mock tests and simulations online for testing your theoretical and practical knowledge. To be able to get through simulation questions, you need to possess practical knowledge. For this, you should test your skills on equipment.

However, if you are not able to do so, you can check practice labs online that offer access to live equipment for gaining practical experience. Take numerous CCENT, CCNA & CCNP practice tests to be able to identify your weak points and work on them accordingly. Also, by practicing you will be able to gain confidence and will be able to give your best performance on the day of the certification exam.

Manage Your Time

Time management is essential for cracking CCNA Routing and Switching 200-125 or CCNA Security 210-260 or CCNP exams, CCNP Route, CCNP Switch & CCNP Tshoot. In this exam, you are required to answer around 60-70 questions within an hour and a half (90 minutes). And, as this exam is a difficult one to crack, a lot of people tend to miss out on questions due to a shortage of time.

Despite knowing the answers people end up not clearing this certification exam because of time problems. To avoid that from happening, you should manage your time while taking practice tests, so that on the day of the exam you do not end up tensing up or losing a track of time while answering the questions. Time yourself while practicing for the exams for getting the best results on the day of the exam.

Conclusion

Be mindful of the above-stated points to be able to make the most of the 90-minutes time that is provided during this certification exam. Prepare yourself by reading, practicing and managing the time to ensure that you give your best on the final day.

Microsoft is a leader among vendors in IT that provide certifications. Microsoft products are known to millions of people across the globe. In order to work with them, individuals need to have special skills.

The company offers a number of certifications, that qualifies one as a skillful employee. Microsoft offers certifications of different levels and for all tastes: Microsoft Technology Associate (MTA), Microsoft Certified Solutions Associate (MCSA), Microsoft Certified Solutions Expert (MCSE) and Microsoft Certified Solutions Developer (MCSD).

To find more information about Microsoft certification exams, visit Microsoft website and check the most updated Microsoft exam questions too.

MCSA certifications

MSCA is the main level candidates start their careers from, as they gain the core skills to get entry-level jobs in IT and build a bright career within the Microsoft certification path. Microsoft offers a great variety of MCSA credentials: Cloud Platform, Linux on Azure, Microsoft Dynamics 365, Windows Server 2016, Web Applications among many.

To get more information about MCSA certification, visit Microsoft website.

MCSA: Office 365 credential

One of the most sought-after certification is MCSA: Office 365 credential. It proves that you are qualified enough to work with cloud-hosted business application using Microsoft Office 365. To get this credential, you need to pass two exams 70-346 and 70-347. This acticle will provide you with the most detailed information about Microsoft 70-347 exam. So, let’s take a closer look at it.

The test is designed to validate your ability to evaluate, plan, deploy, and operate Office 365 services. You should demonstrate that you can manage devices for clients and configure Skype for Business and Exchange Online. 70-347 also validates your skills in configuring and securing the services of Office 365 and and implementing of SharePoint.

How does Microsoft 70-347 exam look like?

• Prerequisites: familiarity with SharePoint Online, Microsoft Azure Active Directory, Exchange Online, and Skype for Business
• Number of Questions: 40-60
• Question types may include multiple-choice with single answer, multiple-choice with multiple answer, case studies, and drag-and-drop
• Duration: 2 hours
• Cost: $165
• Passing score: 700/1000
• Registration: Microsoft Learning/ Pearson VUE

Why is Microsoft 70-347 exam important and popular?

• It is administered by Microsoft, a leading IT vendor.

• It is one of the two exams required to attain MCSA: Office 365 certification. Once you pass 70-346 and 70-347 tests, you will be a certified specialist.
• Passing the exam proves your skills in handling the technical tasks.

What does Microsoft 70-347 exam mean to your career?

• You attain unique skills

Exam 70-347 leads to the attaining of unique skills which are highly valuedby the employers. IT certification proves that you have what it takes to accomplish the required technical tasks.

• Get an advantage in finding employment

MCSA Office 365 has become popular across the world. Employers prefer the individuals who have the right skills that can help them achieve their business needs.

• Prepare for career roles with a high wage

MCSA certifications, and more specifically MCSA Office 365, are the best way to launch your IT career. According to indeed.com, the roles related to MCSA 365 office attract up to $70/hour in the US. This is a great way to start your career even if you plan to pursue more advanced credentials.

• Get a possibility to grow

With the impressive skills and performance, chances are high that you can be assigned more complex tasks in your workplace. With challenging roles come remunerations and experience.

What job opportunities are available after passing Microsoft 70-347 exam?

Once you pass your 70-347 exam, you qualify for any of the following job roles:

• SaaS (Software as a Service) Administrator

• Solutions Specialist

• Office 365 Architect

• Exchange Architect

• Cloud Applications Administrator

• Server Administrator

Important things to know before you sit for Microsoft 70-347 exam

• To pass the exam, register with Microsoft Learning and schedule your test with Pearson VUE

• Get yourself acquainted with Microsoft exam policies and regulations

• Understand 70-347 structure and objectives

• Prepare for your exam thoroughly. You can do this by enrolling for a course, getting relevant study guides, and using practice tests

What is the role of dumps in passing Microsoft 70-347 exam?

Dumps are past exam questions and answers uploaded by professionals who have previously passed their 70-347 test. Exam dumps will show how your exam looks like. You will also see the possible kinds of questions that may appear on the exam. The dumps are useful for preparation, but it’s advisable that you use them along with other revision resources like study guides and training courses. You must also ensure that you use dumps that are up to date because exam structure and objectives are bound to change from time to time.

10 tips to pass your Microsoft 70-347 exam

• Understand the exam objectives well

Before you start your revision, ensure that you know what the test is all about. Search for relevant guides and materials.

• Make sure your study space is well organized

Avoid cluttering your study space. Organize your books and other revision materials in a way that you can locate them easily. If you are using your computer or phone, ensure that you can easily access the materials whenever you need them.

• Enroll in a training course

Find an instructor who is qualified to help you with your study and revision. The Microsoft official website is the best place to find accredited trainers.

• Use old exams for practice

Practice tests are very useful for your preparation. They help you know the exam structure, manage time, and know how to answer questions.

Find the most reliable websites to get the best materials for your preparation, for example, visit www.passitdump.com.

• Study to understand and avoid cramming

Make sure you understand what you are studying. If you cram, you can easily forget everything or most of what you have studied. Cramming can actually be very counterproductive. Make sure you start your studies in advance so that there won’t be any need to rush.

• Have a study group for discussions

Find friends preparing for the same exam as you. The discussions can be face to face interactions or online. Share information with each other and seek clarification on what you don’t understand.

• Take breaks regularly

Make sure that you rest in between your study sessions. Come up with a study schedule that will work best for you. If you begin your preparation early enough, then you can always afford some small breaks.

• Eat food that boosts your brain power

Take nutritious foods such as nuts, fish, yogurt, fruits, and seeds. They have been known to boost the brain power. Avoid fast-food and unhealthy snacks that carry no nutritional value. Also, ensure to take water regularly.

• Take enough rest the night before your exam

Yes. Go to bed early on the eve of your test. This will help you stay alert throughout your exam period the next day. How to overcome excitement and calm down the evening before the exam?

• Properly plan your exam day

Everything that you would require for your test should be ready in advance. Do not wait for the morning of your exam as that can really mess the things up.

Top web resources for Microsoft exams

• Courses: for MCSA 70-347 exam preparation it’s Course 20347A: Enabling and Managing Office 365 Microsoft Course
• Books: Exam Ref 70-347: Enabling Office 365 Study Guide by Orin Thomas
• Online platforms: PrepAway 70-347 Practice tests (or any other with the updated material).

What i the next step? MCSE certification

After getting MCSA certification, if you are an ambitious person and wish to be an expert in cloud applications administration, you’ll make a new step and get MCSE credential. With MCSA Office 365 certification, you can go for MCSE Productivity, the popular expert-level credential.

Among other in-demand MCSE credentials are Business Applications, Cloud Platform and Infrastructure, Core Infrastructure, Mobility, Productivity, Data Management and Analytics.

To learn more about any MCSE certification exam, browse Microsoft website.

Conclusion

Having Microsoft certification is a great advantage to you and your CV. MCSA, MCSE or any other Microsoft credentials, proves that you are a real professional in the field you are working or intending to work.

If you choose to gain MCSA Office 365 certification, going for Microsoft 70-347 exam is the best way to launch your career in the dynamic IT field. If you wish to get some great career prospects, then this is where to start from. What’s more? Microsoft credentials do not expire. These certifications are going to be useful to you for a lifetime. Be consistent in your actions and have a plan, as well as the valid prep material.

The emergence of mobile telephony is obviously one of the major revolutions of communication in Nigeria. This is because no other technology has been so beneficial to all and sundry like the ubiquitous mobile phone. Its simplicity has facilitated its use by both literate and illiterate people, and it has remained one of the technologies to be so ready embraced by the poor.

Within the last few years of its introduction to Nigeria, the technology became commercially available almost immediately. Many young people were infected with the bug of GSM handsets to the extent that some spent all their savings just to acquire one. Now, mobile phones are no longer merely electronic gadgets possessed only by the rich, but now available for whoever cares to own.

In the early days of mobile system of communication in Nigeria, only the rich could actually afford the services. This period is termed the first generation of mobile telephony. The analog cellular was used, which basically allowed for voice communication only. This generation of mobile phones appeared not to exist in Nigeria since very few people really knew about cellular phones and was only available to a few percentage of the population. The use of land phone was still pertinent in the country oriented services. Analog cellular was, therefore, regarded as a precious object to possess and those who had it were highly regarded.

During this generation of mobile telecommunication, Nigerian phone users were confined to the use of fixed-phone communication system. It was therefore common sight to see long queue at phone boots, with everyone waiting for his or her turn, this is because only few could afford to own land line due to high cost to get connected, therefore callers opted for unit cards for public phone booths which were a bit affordable. Meanwhile, the rest of the developed world and many others in Africa had entered into another generation of mobile communication.

The emergence of digital personal communication system marked the beginning of another generation of the mobile phone termed the second generation. This generation offered users the convenience of the use of voice and SMS communications. While many African countries quickly embraced this generation, Nigeria had been so slow to indulge in it due to mainly bad leadership. As a result the technology was not introduced to the country until some six years back.

It was as if the introduction was all Nigerians had been waiting for, the technology was quickly embraced and though very expensive at the beginning it later became common article to possess. With time, the prices of cell phones and SIM Cards dropped considerably to such effect that SIM Packs were sold for almost free as more services providers were issued with license. The second generation opened the Nigerian economy to many opportunities; many benefited and are still enjoying the benefits that came with its introduction.

The first set of mobile phones sold in the Nigerian market at the inception of this generation had limited features. Most of the handsets could only be used for voice calls and SMS only, also the ringing tones were mostly monophonic. Gradually, as the mobile phone manufacturing industries improve on features of the phones being produced, so was Nigeria benefiting from this, and now her market is being flooded with many mobile handsets with improved features that include coloured screen, polyphonic ring tones, internet browsing etc.

This previous generation is obviously to be the stepping stone to the next generation termed the third generation (3G). Nigeria is now one of the most sought-after countries in Africa by multinational communication industries due to its ready market and therefore the country is on the threshold to the third generation of mobile phones. This generation offers the ability to transfer simultaneously voice, data and non-voice data such as down loading information, exchanging e-mail, and instant messaging. And again, another round of economic benefits is around and will put smiles to the faces of many Nigerians.

References
^ Computer network definition, archived from the original on 2012-01-21, retrieved 2011-11-12
^ “История о том, как пионер кибернетики оказался не нужен СССР” [The story of how a cybernetics pioneer became unnecessary to the USSR]. ria.ru (in Russian). МИА «Россия сегодня». 2010-08-09. Retrieved 2015-03-04. Главным делом жизни Китова, увы, не доведенным до практического воплощения, можно считать разработку плана создания компьютерной сети (Единой государственной сети вычислительных центров – ЕГСВЦ) для управления народным хозяйством и одновременно для решения военных задач. Этот план Анатолий Иванович предложил сразу в высшую инстанцию, направив в январе 1959 года письмо генсеку КПСС Никите Хрущеву. Не получив ответа (хотя начинание на словах было поддержано в различных кругах), осенью того же года он заново направляет на самый верх письмо, приложив к нему 200-страничный детальный проект, получивший название ‘Красной книги’. [One can regard the magnum opus of Kitov’s career as his elaboration of the plan – unfortunately never brought into practical form – for the establishment of a computer network (the Unified State Network of Computer Centres – EGSVTs) for the control of the national economy and simultaneously for the resolution of military tasks. Anatolii Ivanovich presented this plan directly to the highest levels, sending a letter in January 1959 to the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev. Not receiving a reply (although supported in various circles), in the autumn of the same year he again sent a letter to the very top, appending a 200-page detailed project plan, called the ‘Red Book’]
^ Isaacson, Walter (2014). The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. Simon and Schuster. pp. 237–246.
^ “Inductee Details – Paul Baran”. National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
^ “Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies”. National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
^ Roberts, Larry; Marrill, Tom (October 1966). Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers. Fall AFIPS Conference.
^ Chris Sutton. “Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers”. UCLA. Archived from the original on March 8, 2008.
^ Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web. Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 0192862073.
^ C. Hempstead; W. Worthington (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology. Routledge.
^ Bennett, Richard (September 2009). “Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate” (PDF). Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. p. 11. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
^ Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks Archived 2007-08-07 at the Wayback Machine., Robert M. Metcalfe and David R. Boggs, Communications of the ACM (pp 395–404, Vol. 19, No. 5), July 1976.
^ a b Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). Ethernet The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly & Associates. ISBN 1-56592-660-9.
^ [1], The Disadvantages of Wired Technology, Laura Acevedo, Demand Media.
^ “Bergen Linux User Group’s CPIP Implementation”. Blug.linux.no. Retrieved 2014-03-01.
^ A. Hooke (September 2000), Interplanetary Internet (PDF), Third Annual International Symposium on Advanced Radio Technologies, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13, retrieved 2011-11-12
^ “Define switch”. WWW.Wikipedia.com. Retrieved April 8, 2008.
^ “What bridge devices and bridging do for computer networks”.
^ a b D. Andersen; H. Balakrishnan; M. Kaashoek; R. Morris (October 2001), Resilient Overlay Networks, Association for Computing Machinery, retrieved 2011-11-12
^ “End System Multicast”. project web site. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on February 21, 2005. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
^ For an interesting write-up of the technologies involved, including the deep stacking of communica

Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering “end-to-end” encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.

The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the end points and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.

Views of networks Edit

Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area, and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.

Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees).[41] Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).[41]

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology.

See also Edit

Comparison of network diagram software
Cyberspace
History of the Internet
Network simulation
Network planning and design
Network traffic control
Minimum-Pairs Protocol

Network Security

Main article: Computer security
Network security
Network security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources.[36] Network security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals.

Network surveillance Edit
Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency.

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.[37]

However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T.[37][38] The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers “draconian surveillance”.[39][40]

End to end encryption Edit
End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity.

Examples of end-to-end encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for email, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.

Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering “end-to-end” encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.

The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the end points and the times and quantiti

Routing

Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to take. For example, from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-7-6 or 1-8-10-6, as this has the thickest routes.
Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

In packet switched networks, routing directs packet forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router’s memory, is very important for efficient routing.

There are usually multiple routes that can be taken, and to choose between them, different elements can be considered to decide which routes get installed into the routing table, such as (sorted by priority):

Prefix-Length: where longer subnet masks are preferred (independent if it is within a routing protocol or over different routing protocol)
Metric: where a lower metric/cost is preferred (only valid within one and the same routing protocol)
Administrative distance: where a lower distance is preferred (only valid between different routing protocols)
Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.

Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used within localized environments.

Network service Edit

Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

The World Wide Web, E-mail,[29] printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and MAC addresses (people remember names like “nm.lan” better than numbers like “210.121.67.18”),[30] and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.[31]

Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service.

SONET/SDH
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) format. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode Edit
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or frames. ATM has similarity with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

While the role of ATM is diminishing in favor of next-generation networks, it still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user.[20]

Cellular standards Edit
There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).

A network can be characterized by its physical capacity or its organizational purpose. Use of the network, including user authorization and access rights, differ accordingly.

Nanoscale network
A nanoscale communication network has key components implemented at the nanoscale including message carriers and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for classical communication.[22]

Personal area network
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.[23] A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are most likely based on Ethernet technology. Newer standards such as ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.[24]

The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a wide area network (WAN), include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to 100 Gbit/s, standardized by IEEE in 2010.[25] Currently, 400 Gbit/s Ethernet is being developed.

A LAN can be connected to a WAN using a router.

Home area network
A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider.

A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. In a protocol stack (also see the OSI model), each protocol leverages the services of the protocol layer below it, until the lowest layer controls the hardware which sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the World Wide Web protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.11 (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user’s personal computer when the user is surfing the web.

Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

IEEE 802 Edit
IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.

For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access Control protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a “wireless access key”.

Ethernet Edit
Ethernet, sometimes simply called LAN, is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Wireless LAN Edit
Wireless LAN, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. It is standardized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with wired Ethernet.

Internet Protocol Suite Edit
The Internet Protocol Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less as well as connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by data-gram transmission at the Internet protocol (IP) level. At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability.